ANCIENT GREEEK FEMALE PHILOSOPHERS

         Most people in our planet mainly know the ancient Greek male philosophers. But what about female philosophers in Ancient Greece? History can show us some interesting examples of them, like the following ones:

 

1)      DIOTIMA

 

        Diotima is one of the most famous female ancient Greek philosophers. She was a priestess in Mantineia. Plato refers to her in his work "Symposion" or "On Love". In this particular work, Socrates mentions Diotima as his teacher and states that he owes to her his views on beautiful and true. Proclus believed that Diotima belonged to the Pythagorean philosophers while Xenophon stated that Diotima was well acquainted with even the most difficult geometric theorems.

 

2)      AXIOTHEA

 

 

        Axiothea was born in Flioundas, Peloponnese, in the 4th century BC.. Since women were not allowed to enter the Academy at that time, she attended classes there, dressed as a man. She was one of the most intelligent students of the Academy. Later she taught in Corinth and Athens.

 

3)      LASTHENIA

 

        Lasthenia was from Arcadia and studied mathematics and philosophy at the Plato Academy dressed as a man. After Plato's death, Lasthenia continued her studies with his nephew Speusippus, whom he fell in love with and remained close to. According to Aristophanes the Peripatetic, Lasthenia formulated the definition of the sphere as follows:

        "The sphere is a solid body, enclosed by a surface and having a point whose distances from all points of the aforementioned surface are equal to each other."

  

4)      ARITI

 

 

        Ariti (4th-3rd century BC) was the daughter of the founder of the Cyrenaic School of Philosophy, Aristippus. She studied at the Plato Academy. She taught mathematics, physics and philosophy in Attica for many years and wrote at least 40 books. After the death of her father, she became the director of his school. Among her students were about 100 philosophers.

        Ariti's successor at the helm of the school was her son, Aristippus the Younger, who was taught philosophy by his mother and was named "mother-taught".

 

5)      THEMISTA

 

        One of the most intelligent spirits of the 4th century BC. was the philosopher Themista, who was a student of Epicurus and was his spiritual support for the time he lived in Lampsacus. She was married to the philosopher Leontios Lampsakinos while she gave her son the name "Epikouros" in honor of her teacher.

 

        The life of Themista was an example of the application of the philosophy of Epicurus, being an anthem for friendship and mutual respect of people. Epicurus' appreciation for Themista was so great that later the Stoic philosopher Cicero wrote, full of indignation, that Epicurus never spoke of Lycurgus, Solon, Miltiades or Themistocles, as all other philosophers did, but devoted thick volumes in Themista.

 

 

6)      HIPPARCHIA

 

 

        Hipparchia was born in 325 or 328 in Maronia, Thrace to a wealthy family. She was the first female student of the cynical school of Thebes, where Kratis taught. Hipparchy fell in love with her teacher, who was ugly and hunchbacked and followed his way of life, despite the objections of her family. This is how she spent her life philosophizing, and making love in public. She had a daughter, who erotically tested all of her parents' students for a month to reach the best.

        Hipparchia wrote many books, but none survives.

 

 7)      AMPHIKLEIA

 

        Amfikleia lived in Rome around 260 AD, and had a special place among the students of the philosopher Plotinus. She was in charge of the hymns and the symbolic ceremonies of the school.

 

8)      SOSIPATRA

 

        Sosipatra lived at the beginning of the 4th century BC and came from Canopus in Egypt. She was a student at the Syrian school of Iamblichus, where she was taught Pythagorean philosophy, ancient theology and numerology. At that time, the director of her school was Edessios, who fell in love with her because of her charismatic personality. However, she married her fellow student, Efstathios, who after the death of Edessios, became the director of his school.

After the death of her husband, Sosipatra went to Pergamon, where she became popular for her philosophical abilities. The Christians described her as a witch and fought her. After her death, she was succeeded in her work by her son, Antoninos, who was killed by the Christians inside the temple of Serapis, because he was a defender of the old religion.

  

9)      ASKLIPIGENIA

 

        The Neoplatonic philosopher Asklipigenia lived in the 5th century BC and was the daughter of the philosopher Plutarch and the granddaughter of Nestorius. After the death of her father, she took over his students, the most famous of whom was Proclus. Later, her daughter, Asklipigenia the Younger, became the successor of her work, who fought with her partner, Theagenis, to defend their ideas, a time when ancient knowledge was being pursued.

 

 10)  EDESSIA

 

        Edessia was a philosopher from Alexandria, who was distinguished for her great education. She attended classes with her uncle, Syrianos, who wanted to marry her to Proclus but the last one refused. Eventually she married Hermes and had two children, Ammonius and Heliodorus. After the death of her husband, Edessia came to Athens, where she continued her philosophical work and was honored by all the philosophers of her time, among whom was Proclus. When she died, her funeral speech was delivered in hexametric verses by the then young Damascius, who was the director of the Academy.

IGNORING THE GREAT IMPORTANCE OF ARCHITECTURE… / ΑΓΝΟΩΝΤΑΣ ΤΗ ΣΠΟΥΔΑΙOΤΗΤΑ ΤΗΣ ΑΡΧΙΤΕΚΤΟΝΙΚΗΣ…

 

It is really funny to tragic how much ignorance the average Greek citizen has about architecture. Talking often with various Greeks during the course of my life, from my adolescence until today, I often find with regret that they have no idea how important the architectural art is for the life of every person but also how difficult it is to practice architectural activity and design high quality architectural projects. The average citizen also ignores the numerous knowledge and skills a good architect is required to possess: Endless imagination, logic, know-how, knowledge of building materials, understanding of the natural principles that govern architectural works, as well as all material bodies, knowledge of history in general but even more of the history of architecture, ease of understanding human needs but also real sensitivity to try to meet them through architectural design, perfect ability to express himself/herself through various artistic ways such as free drawing, line drawing by hand and with a variety of computer software, model construction, good taste, legislation related to the design of construction projects and foreign languages ​​that serve the easy and continuous access on information about the latest developments in the field of world architecture through the international media. It also takes a lot of patience, perseverance to achieve the best possible result, unremitting effort, the ability to calmly accept the rejection of time-consuming work produced and repeat it in order to improve the architectural product and sacrifice personal life for this wonderful art. And these are just some of the skills that a good architect needs to possess.

So, which is the result of good architecture carried out by its worthy therapists? Beautiful, pleasant, strong and healthy buildings, in which everyday life evolves in the best way. But also mental pleasure even for those who live around them and enjoy their beauty every day. Beautiful and functional cities, inside which there is a pleasant, creative and without functional problems life. Cities that through their structures invite their inhabitants to walk them and become happy. Cities that challenge their citizens to socialize with each other and through that to feel happier. Also ergonomic, beautiful and functional everyday objects: Comfortable and practical furniture, smart home storage spaces, interesting lighting and much more. Let us not forget the contribution of the architects in the preservation of the architectural heritage of each place, an act of duty for every civilized society.

The activity of good architects who respect the profession they treat is not multifaceted and not at all easy.

That is why a huge lack of information and culture appears through statements of fellow citizens that I hear every day, such as: “Architecture is easy, show. An architect is someone who just draws lines on a piece of paper." "Architecture is for the rich. It aims to produce only expensive constructions. Why should the average citizen who needs a home go to an architect?" "Architecture is for the bad students who want to get by with studies without difficulties and without a lot of mathematics or a lot of physics and chemistry. Good students choose engineering schools with more math." "Architects are the ones who decide what color to paint the walls designed by civil engineers or graduates of the relative schools of technology." "Architects just paint." I hear this and much more every day, even from fellow civil engineers. Of course, the latter probably have an economic interest in often going blind.

Good architecture (like the other wonderful fine arts) is, conclusively, a very difficult and extremely arduous spiritual activity and must be included in the priorities of every civilized society. In addition, it would be good for every citizen to be systematically informed since his/her school years about the importance of this wonderful art. Something that one learns to respect and love from a young age, continues being appreciated throughout his/her whole adult life.

Είναι πραγματικά από αστείο μέχρι τραγικό το πόσο μεγάλη άγνοια έχει για την αρχιτεκτονική ο μέσος Έλληνας πολίτης. Συνομιλώντας τυχαία με διάφορους Έλληνες κατά την πορεία της ζωής μου, από την εφηβεία μου μέχρι σήμερα, με λύπη μου συχνά διαπιστώνω πως δεν έχουν ιδέα για το πόσο σπουδαία είναι η αρχιτεκτονική τέχνη για τη ζωή κάθε ανθρώπου αλλά και το πόσο δύσκολη είναι η άσκηση του αρχιτεκτονικής δραστηριότητας και ο σχεδιασμός υψηλής ποιότητας αρχιτεκτονικών έργων. Ο μέσος πολίτης αγνοεί επίσης τις πολυάριθμες γνώσεις και δεξιότητες απαιτείται να κατέχει ο καλός αρχιτέκτονας: Ανεξάντλητη φαντασία, λογική, τεχνογνωσία, γνώση των δομικών υλικών, κατανόηση των φυσικών αρχών που διέπουν τα αρχιτεκτονικά έργα, όπως άλλωστε και όλα τα υλικά σώματα, γνώση της ιστορίας γενικότερα αλλά ακόμη πιο πολύ της ιστορίας της αρχιτεκτονικής, ευκολία στην κατανόηση των ανθρώπινων αναγκών αλλά και πραγματική ευαισθησία για την προσπάθεια της κάλυψής τους μέσω του αρχιτεκτονικού σχεδιασμού, άρτια ικανότητα έκφρασης μέσω ποικίλων εικαστικών τρόπων όπως το ελεύθερο σχέδιο, το γραμμικό σχέδιο με το χέρι αλλά και με ποικίλα λογισμικά Η/Υ, η πλαστική, η κατασκευή μακετών, το καλό γούστο,  η νομοθεσία που αφορά στο σχεδιασμό δομικών έργων και οι ξένες γλώσσες που εξυπηρετούν την εύκολη και συνεχή ενημέρωση για τις τελευταίες εξελίξεις στο πεδίο της παγκόσμιας αρχιτεκτονικής από τα διεθνή μέσα. Απαιτούνται επίσης τεράστια υπομονή, επιμονή για την επίτευξη του βέλτιστου δυνατού αποτελέσματος, ασταμάτητη προσπάθεια, ικανότητα αποδοχής με ψυχραιμία της απόρριψης χρονοβόρας παραχθείσας δουλειάς και επανάληψής της με σκοπό την βελτίωση του αρχιτεκτονικού παραγώγου και θυσία του προσωπικού ελεύθερου χρόνου στο όνομα της αγάπης προς αυτή την υπέροχη τέχνη. Κι αυτές είναι μερικές μόνο από τις δεξιότητες που απαιτείται να κατέχει ο καλός αρχιτέκτονας.

Το αποτέλεσμα της καλής αρχιτεκτονικής που πραγματοποιείται από τους άξιους θεράποντές της; Όμορφα, ευχάριστα, γερά και υγιεινά οικοδομήματα, μέσα στα οποία εξελίσσεται με τον καλύτερο τρόπο η καθημερινή ζωή. Αλλά και ψυχική απόλαυση ακόμη και γι΄αυτούς που ζουν τριγύρω τους και χαίρονται καθημερινά την ομορφιά τους. Ωραίες και λειτουργικές πόλεις, στα όρια των οποίων διάγεται ευχάριστος, δημιουργικός και χωρίς λειτουργικά προβλήματα βίος. Πόλεις που μέσω των δομών τους προσκαλούν τους κατοίκους τους να τις περπατήσουν και να τις χαρούν. Πόλεις που προκαλούν τους πολίτες τους να συναναστραφούν μεταξύ τους και μέσα από αυτό να γίνουν πιο χαρούμενοι. Επίσης αντικείμενα καθημερινής χρήσης εργονομικά, όμορφα και λειτουργικά: Ξεκούραστα και πρακτικά έπιπλα, έξυπνοι χώροι οικιακής αποθήκευσης, ενδιαφέροντα φωτιστικά και άλλα πολλά. Κι ας μην ξεχνά κανείς τη συμβολή των αρχιτεκτόνων στη διατήρηση της αρχιτεκτονικής κληρονομιάς κάθε τόπου, πράξη καθήκοντος για κάθε πολιτισμένη κοινωνία.

Πολύπλευρη και καθόλου εύκολη δεν είναι λοιπόν, η δραστηριότητα των καλών αρχιτεκτόνων που σέβονται την πανάρχαια τέχνη που θεραπεύουν.

Γι ΄αυτό φανερώνουν τεράστια έλλειψη ενημέρωσης και καλλιέργειας εντυπώσεις και δηλώσεις συμπολιτών που ακούω καθημερινά, μέχρι και σήμερα, όπως: «Η αρχιτεκτονική είναι εύκολη. Ο αρχιτέκτονας είναι κάποιος που απλά τραβά γραμμές σε ένα χαρτί.» «Η αρχιτεκτονική είναι για τους πλούσιους. Έχει σκοπό την παραγωγή μόνο ακριβών κατασκευών. Γιατί να πάει σε αρχιτέκτονα ο μέσος πολίτης που χρειάζεται σπίτι;» «Η αρχιτεκτονική είναι για τους κακούς μαθητές που θέλουν να τα βγάλουν πέρα με σπουδές χωρίς δύσκολα και πολλά μαθηματικά ή χωρίς πολλή φυσική και χημεία. Οι καλοί μαθητές επιλέγουν σχολές μηχανικών με περισσότερα μαθηματικά.» «Οι αρχιτέκτονες είναι κάποιοι που αποφασίζουν με τί χρώμα θα βαφτούν οι τοίχοι που σχεδίασαν οι πολιτικοί μηχανικοί ή οι πτυχιούχοι των αντίστοιχων τεχνολογικών σχολών.»  «Οι αρχιτέκτονες απλά ζωγραφίζουν.» Αυτά και άλλα πολλά ακούω καθημερινά, ακόμη κι από συναδέλφους πολιτικούς μηχανικούς. Βέβαια οι τελευταίοι μάλλον έχουν συμφέρουν ώστε συχνά να εθελοτυφλούν.

Η καλή αρχιτεκτονική (όπως και οι υπόλοιπες υπέροχες καλές τέχνες) είναι, λοιπόν, μία πολύ δύσκολη και εξαιρετικά κοπιαστική πνευματική δραστηριότητα και πρέπει να εντάσσεται στις προτεραιότητες της κάθε πολιτισμένης κοινωνίας. Επιπρόσθετα, θα ήταν καλό ο κάθε πολίτης να ενημερώνεται συστηματικά ήδη από τα σχολικά του χρόνια για τη σπουδαιότητα αυτής της υπέροχης τέχνης. Κάτι που μαθαίνει κανείς να το σέβεται και να το αγαπά από μικρός, συνεχίζει να το εκτιμά και κατά τη διάρκεια όλης της ενήλικης ζωής του.

THE STOIC PHILOSOPHY OF THE METALEXANDRIAN AGE

With the creation of the huge empire of Alexander the Great, many things changed in the political, social, psychological and philosophical life of the ancient Greeks. The small city-states of Greece ceased to exist. In those cities, citizens were accustomed to holding certain important roles for the political life of their place. Suddenly becoming citizens of a vast empire, their concerns and moods changed. At this critical juncture, the new philosophy came to play an important role in the spiritual support of individuals.

The Stoic philosophy, which was developed during the Hellenistic times and evolved until the end of the Roman times is divided into ancient, middle and new Stoa. The founder of the ancient Stoa was Zeno (333-262 BC), who was known for his simplicity and ethos. In contrast to the dualism between Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy, Zeno turned to the archaic philosophy of Heraclitus. He believed that every real being, even the soul or God, is considered bodily. He also believed that matter is in constant change but the fixed base of the spirit ensures the unity of the world. In his opinion, this unity makes all beings related and this is the sympathy of everything that leads to world harmony. He also advocated that the universe was created on the basis of a certain design by a creative mind and that everything that happens in it has a purpose.

Passions, such as desire, pleasure, fear and sorrow, were attributed by Zeno to a wrong judgment. Also, according to the philosopher, scientific knowledge is necessary in order for the moral act to take place. Zeno divided people into sages and fools, considering as sages those free from passions and like God.

The most systematic of the philosophers of the ancient Stoa, however, was Chrysippus (280-210 BC). He taught that the universe ignites from time to time to become again from the beginning and in fact the same as before. He also considered the soul to be a fiery substance that is born in the blood and dies with the body. He believed that the senses, sexual ability, language and logic are parts of the soul. Finally, he stressed that the human will is free and allows the ego, after thought, to take responsibility for its actions.

An important representative of the middle Stoa was Panaitios (185 - 109 BC). He justified human passions and recognized logic as the regulator of spiritual balance. He also emphasized that the will of man cannot be changed even by God.

Panaitos considered that the superiority of man is due to his logic and distinguished in him four spiritual impulses: for knowledge, for social coexistence, for the conquest of goods and for peace of soul. According to the philosopher, wisdom, justice, bravery and self-control develop from these impulses.

Poseidonios (135-51 BC) also belonged to the Middle Stoa. In his conceptions coexisted Greek and Eastern wisdom, mysticism with rationalism, belief in both miracles and causation, theoretical and empirical thinking, personal observation and historical tradition. As a carrier of life in the organic world he considered heat, a fiery breath that is identified with speech. He also believed that the world was a huge living organism with a soul of reason. Poseidonios considered the human soul to be fiery and argued that harmony and beauty arise from the opposites of the world.

Poseidonios believed that logic distinguished man from animals and that this was the driving force behind the evolution of civilization and not necessity. From a moral point of view, the philosopher advocated that man ought in thought and action to follow his logic because only in this way can he live a life in accordance with his nature. Finally, he believed that for human happiness, in addition  to virtue, there must also be health, strength and other goods.

The representatives of the new Stoa belong to the first two Christian centuries. Their views approach Platonism, advocate man's relationship with God, and emphasize love for fellow human beings. A well known representative of the new Stoa was the slave Epictetus (50-135 AD). He believed that within man there is a space that is inaccessible to material power and to the temptation of external goods. He also believed that being indifferent to things which he can not control, someone can get rid of passions. An admirer of the Epictetus was Marcus Aurelius (121-180 AD), who wrote that knowing that everything changes, one can not desire anything and be afraid of anything outside, submitting to the natural course of the world and thus cultivating his inner freedom, which is in accordance with his rational nature.

ARISTOTLE: THE MOST METHODICAL MIND OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

Aristotle (384-322 BC) was the most methodical mind of the ancient world. In fact, he was the founder of logic, which for him was an instrument of philosophy.

Aristotle's logic was based on the assumption of the existence of categories and meanings. The former correspond to normal things and the latter to their essence. Thus the acquisition of knowledge is based on meanings, which are being conceived under conditions that are in the senses.

The philosopher also distinguished knowledge into direct and indirect. The first is acquired insightfully while the second by observation, experience and subtraction.

Unlike Plato, Aristotle did not believe that ideas pre-existed. On the contrary, he believed that the human spirit has the ability to create meanings and with them to perceive reality.

As for the above-mentioned categories of normal things, these for Aristotle were the following ten, which he explained by describing a man, Korikos:

1) Substance (human)

2) Quantity (three bars)

3) Quality (white, educated)

4) Relationship (older)

5) Place (in the market)

6) Time (yesterday)

7) Position (sitting)

8) Condition (dressed)

9) Energy (cuts)

10) Suffering (cut)

Judging the Platonic theory of ideas, Aristotle considered as its disadvantage the division of reality into tangible and conceivable. So he preferred to deal with the perceptible reality and to look for the essence of beings within the specific objects.

Aristotle, knowing the views of the prosocratic natural philosophers and conducting physiognostic and biological research himself, came to the conclusion that things are specific combinations of matter and form, which he considered to be eternal and unchanging.

Extremely interesting is Aristotle's theory of man's ability to create poetry. In fact, the philosopher distinguished poetry on two different levels: The technological level of poetry aims at the creation of objects that complement nature. The artistic level aims at the interpretation of existing objects.

In Aristotle's natural philosophy, the teleological criterion is of particular interest. According to this, nature creates beings who aim at their self-realization. This is achieved through the optimal combination of form with matter. Therefore form is the purpose of creation.

At the level of natural philosophy, Aristotle was also interested in investigating what is happening in things. He therefore dealt with concepts of physics such as mass, space, time, motion, change, infinity, emptiness and continuum. He also founded biology and other related disciplines, such as phytology, zoology, entomology, embryology, ecology and animal psychology. He also suggested species classification methods and investigated the causes of sex differentiation, hereditary and acquired traits, polygon and oligogene, polycythemia and gestational age in animals, the spread of certain species and the effect of natural environment in the ethos of animals, their mental manifestations, their habits, weather effects on them and their diseases. Many of Aristotle's discoveries in the science of biology were discovered and accepted by lots of modern scientists, many of whom were unfamiliar with the work of the ancient philosopher.

As for the place of man in the animal kingdom, the great Macedonian philosopher acknowledged with arguments the undoubted superiority of the human species over other animals, although he accepted his biological relationship with them. As characteristics of human superiority he set the upright posture, the upright gait, the construction of the hand, the articulate speech and the conscious thinking. He also observed that the unique characteristics of man that contribute to his superiority are the ability to perceive the concept of time and measure it, the ability to remember himself, the ability to think about issues that concern him, the ability to choose, his laughter and his heart beats due to mental causes. Finally, without questioning the greater physical strength of many other animals compared to man, he observed his inexhaustible spiritual power, which allows him to achieve his goals.

Aristotle was also concerned with the issue of the soul. He dealt with the soul not only from a philosophical point of view but also from a biological, epistemological and moral point of view. He even expressed the view that "The soul is the first end in itself of a physical body that has life in it." In addition, he believed that the soul is for man what it is the form for matter. Finally, the philosopher distinguished three types of soul: the vegetative (of plants), the sensitive (of animals) and the rational (of humans).

On the issue of ethics, Aristotle, disagreeing with Plato and Socrates, argued that it is not based on the knowledge of good but on the practice of good, since it leads directly to happiness.

At the level of ethical philosophy, Aristotle dealt particularly with the subject of friendship, which he researched as a moral phenomenon. Friendship is about both the relationship between the casual passengers of a ship and the relationship between members of a family or between a person and himself.

At the level of political philosophy, Aristotle argued that a human being can be morally complete only in a society or otherwise that man is a "political animal". In fact, he believed that the goals of the individual and the whole are always identical in an organized society.

At the level of political philosophy, again, Aristotle distinguished two different types of classification of the citizens of a society. He first divided them into farmers, craftsmen and merchants. His second categorization ranked them as rich, poor and middle class. The philosopher thus stated that the relations between these social groups determines the state.

Aristotle distinguished three typical types of regimes and three deviations from them. The first are the kingdom, the aristocracy and the democracy. The latter are tyranny, oligarchy and mob rule. Nevertheless, like Plato, Aristotle ultimately considered that there are essentially only two kinds of regimes: that which serves the good of society and that which serves only the good of the lords.

However, Aristotle supported the idea of a society where the middle class prevails and where everyone is equal before the law. Finally, the Macedonian philosopher was the first to support the principle of separation of powers and that of the majority.

As an epilogue it is noted that Aristotle was the teacher of Alexander the Great.

 Finally, in modern Greece, the largest university is named after the great philosopher: It is the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.

PLATO'S EXCITING THEORIES

The greatest of Socrates' disciples was Plato (427-347 BC). This philosopher believed that the soul had known the meanings of things in the period before it came on Earth. Thus all knowledge in the terrestrial world is essentially a memory of what the soul had seen before it entered the body and then forgot. So, when the soul sees in the earthly world things that resemble its formerly superhuman forms, it awakens and feels nostalgia for the eternal archetype. This state evokes true love or otherwise "Platonic love", that is, the soul's desire to know the real beings and to imitate them in the earthly world.

The conquest of knowledge, according to Plato, takes place through dialogue. Through this, the meanings and the relations between them are determined. Meanings contribute to the approach of eternal and pre-existing ideas, which are, according to the philosopher, the real beings and the cause of everything that happens in the world. In fact, the idea of ​​the good was considered by Plato as the ultimate purpose of the world.

For the soul, the philosopher formulated the following theory: The soul once inhabited the world of ideas but the laws of the earthly world forced it to enter the body and come to the earthly world. Depending on its actions on earth, the soul after the death of the body is either released immediately and returns to the divine world or enters successively into bodies of other living organisms, until it is completely cleansed of its faults and can one day return to the divine world.

According to Plato, the soul is not an idea but a relative of it. Also, the way for the soul to know the divine, the ideal is to become the same as it. In order for the soul to know the beautiful and the good, it must become beautiful and good itself. Finally, in order to know God, the soul must know the idea of ​​the good, which, as foretold, is the ultimate purpose of the world.

Plato believed, like his teacher, Socrates, that no one is bad at will but only because he does not know good. This implies that the knowledge of good leads to virtue, so virtue is instructive.

In a political level, Plato believed that the purpose of the state is the spiritual and moral promotion of its citizens, so the good politician must move towards their achievement. In the ideal city, according to the philosopher, there are three categories of citizens: Professionals, security guards and lords. The professionals form the largest team of citizens and with their work they maintain the rest. The guards protect the state in case of external and internal dangers. Finally, the lords come from the guard class, after careful selection, and aim to rule.

According to the philosopher, the guards must acquire music and gymnastics education. The first contributes to knowledge and the second to will. However, in order not to use their skills only for their own benefit and not for the common good, Plato considered that the guards should not have property but instead are required to stay in camps and be feeded there.

Finally, as far as the lords are concerned, they should have at the highest level the virtues of the guards and always act guided by the happiness of all the whole group of citizens.

 

WHAT DID SOCRATES SAY?

The theories of the sophists did bring the human soul to the center of philosophical thought, but they provoked the feeling of uncertainty in the people of their time. This is what Socrates came to face (470-399 BC).

Socrates was not a professional teacher, as the sophists were. Instead he used to develop his thoughts, through dialogue, in places like the market, workshops and gyms.

According to Aristotle, the method by which this philosopher was trying to discover truth and knowledge was as follows: He was asking his interlocutor about questions that were always concerning man and then was judging his answers by checking their validity.

Socrates was very interested in the subject of ethics, which he was considering to be based on logic and to be independent of religion and custom. Unlike the sophists who were believing in the relativity of things, Socrates was arguing for the existence of good and evil. He was believing, then, that no one chooses evil when he knows what he is doing. Thus he came to the conclusion that virtue is based on knowledge, which is instructive.

Socrates was considering the beauty of the soul to be good and beneficial for man, which, in his opinion, was surpassing other goods such as physical strength, health, external beauty, pleasure, wealth and glory.

The teaching of Socrates contributed to the internalization of man and to the projection of the imaginary world as of special value. However, his morals were not ascetic because he was not disregarding human nature.

Without the philosopher himself seeking it, his students created their own schools, based on his philosophical theories. However, each of them evolved with the personal tendencies of its own representative.

MAGICAL NORTHERN ITALY & SERENE SOUTHERN SWITZERLAND

Some time ago I made my first trip to the neighboring European country of Italy. The truth is that I did not expect as much beauty as I saw. Take a look at the  photos of my journey and you will understand what I mean. Northern Italy is just magical.

1st stop: Ancona.

One hot August morning, our ship, which had set sail from beautiful Patras, approached the Italian coast. This was the first image from the neighboring country that I saw with joy.

2nd italian place and stop: National Road Ancona - Milano.

After arriving in Ancona, we boarded the bus that started its journey to Milan. I remember the vast unstructured arable land on both sides of the road. Sometimes I saw an industrial area.

3rd stop: Milano.

Late in the afternoon we arrived in the capital of European fashion, Milan. Although it was a rainy afternoon, we went out to enjoy its center. Milan Cathedral was one of the most impressive buildings in the city.

4th stop: Como. 

Our first destination the next day was the fairytale city of Como. The buildings around the lake were beautiful.

5th stop: Lugano.

The next morning we crossed the Italian-Swiss border and found ourselves in the beautiful and quiet, lagoon city of Lugano.

6th stop: Back to Milano

In the afternoon of the same day we returned to Milan, where we continued our walks.

7th stop: San Giulio, Lago Orta.

The next morning we visited the very picturesque village of San Giulio at Lake Orta.

8th stop: Isola dei Pescatori.

Later that morning we visited the extremely picturesque island: Isola dei Pescatori, that means "The island of fishermen". It is in lake Maggiore. 

9th stop: Isola Bella, Lago Maggiore.

Οur visit to the beautiful nearby island of Isola Bella visited.

10th stop: Stresa. 

The same afternoon we visited the picturesque and flowery city of Streza.

11th stop: Sirmione: 

The next morning we visited the beautiful city where the famous Greek soprano, Maria Callas, lived with her Italian husband, Sirmione at Lake Garda.

12th stop: Venice

The enchanting Venice with its numerous canals was impossible to miss from the list of our destinations in Northern Italy.

13th stop: Cortina d' Ampezzo.

The next day we took the road to the Dolomite Alps. There we visited the beautiful mountain resort Cortina d' Ampezzo.

14th stop: Lago Misurina.

The last but fascinating Italian destination we visited, before our return to Greece, was the picturesque Lake Misourina, in a lush, enchanting landscape of the Italian Alps. 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SgbdTeIYV5Y